Jump to content

Deccan Plateau

Coordinates: 15°N 77°E / 15°N 77°E / 15; 77
Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Deccan Plateau
Deccan Peninsula
Geographical region
The Deccan Plateau (cyan) forms a major part of Peninsular India
The Deccan Plateau (cyan) forms a major part of Peninsular India
Coordinates: 15°N 77°E / 15°N 77°E / 15; 77
CountryIndia
States
Area
 • Total
422,000 km2 (163,000 sq mi)

The Deccan is a plateau extending over an area of 422,000 km2 (163,000 sq mi) and occupies the majority of the Indian peninsula. Shaped like an inverted triangle, it stretches from the Satpura and Vindhya Ranges in the north to the northern fringes of Tamil Nadu in the south. It is bound by the mountain ranges of the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats on the sides, which separate the region from the Western and Eastern Coastal Plains respectively. It covers most of the Indian States of Maharashtra, Telangana, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh excluding the coastal regions, and minor portions of Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

The plateau is marked by rocky terrain with an average of about 600 m (2,000 ft). It is subdivided into Maharashtra Plateau, Karnataka Plateau, and Telangana Plateau. The Deccan Traps in the north west were formed by multiple layers of igneous rocks laid down by basaltic lava flows following a massive volcanic eruption that occurred during the end of the cretaceous period (66 mya). The underlying bed consists of granite and sedimentary rocks formed during the precambrian era and the formation of Gondwana.

The region forms one of the major watersheds of India, with many perennial river systems such as Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri flowing through the region. The plateau slopes gently from the west to east, resulting in most of the principal rivers flowing eastwards towards the Bay of Bengal. As the Western Ghats blocks the rain bearing winds, the plateau region is drier than the coastal region and has a semi-arid climate.

The Deccan plateau region was ruled by several kingdoms in the Indian history such as Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, Satavahanas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas, Kadambas, Kakatiyas, and Western Gangas. In the later medieval era, the lower plateau was ruled by the Vijayanagara empire, and the upper portion by the Bahmani kingdom, and its successors, the Deccan sultanates. It later housed the Kingdom of Mysore, Maratha confederacy, and Nizam's dominions. It was under the control of British Raj for nearly two centuries before the Indian Independence in 1947. The Reorganisation of Indian states in the 1950s resulted in the creation of states on linguistic lines.

Etymology

The word Deccan is an anglicised version of the Prakrit word dakkhaṇa, which evolved from the Sanskrit word dakṣiṇa, meaning "south".[1][2][3]

History

Carbon dating shows that ash mounds associated with Neolithic cultures in region date back to 8000 BCE. Towards the beginning of 1000 BCE, iron technology spread through the region though geological evidence does not point to a fully developed Bronze Age in existence prior to the Iron Age.[4] Since at least the 1st century BCE, the region was connected to the Silk Road and was involved in trade with the Mediterranean and East Asia.[5][6][7]

Map of Deccan in the 14th century CE

Several dynasties such as the Pandyas of Madurai, the Cholas of Thanjavur, the Zamorins of Kozhikode, the Satavahanas of Amaravati, the Pallavas of Kanchi, the Kadambas of Banavasi, the Western Gangas of Kolar, the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, the Chalukyas of Badami, the Hoysalas of Belur, and the Kakatiyas of Orugallu ruled over the region from the 6th century BCE to the 14th century CE.[8][9] In the late middle ages, Vijayanagara empire conquered most of the southern part of the pleateu region.[8][10] The upper portion was ruled by the Bahmani kingdom,[11][12] and later by its successors, the Deccan sultanates.[9][13]

The Europeans arrived in the 15th century CE and by the middle of the 18th century, the French and the British were involved in a protracted struggle for military control over the region.[14] The Maratha Empire founded by Chatrapati Shivaji, briefly captured the region in the early 18th century CE.[15][16][17] After the defeat of Mysore Kingdom in the late 18th century CE and the Vellore Mutiny in 1806 CE, the British East India Company consolidated their power over much of the region. The British Empire took control of the region from the British East India Company in 1857.[9][18]

During the British colonial rule, the region was divided between the Madras Presidency, Bombay Presidency, Hyderabad State, and Mysore.[19][20] The region played a major role in the Indian independence movement.[21] After Indian Independence in 1947, majority of the region was organised into four states Bombay State, Hyderabad State, Madras State, and Mysore State.[22] The Reorganisation of Indian states on linguistic lines in the 1950s resulted in the creation of the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu.[23][24][25] Telangana was created in 2014 by bifurcating Andhra Pradesh.[26][27]

Geology

Topography of the region.
Deccan Traps were formed by lava flows in the cretaceous era (66 mya).

The Deccan Plateau is one of the oldest and most stable land formations in the Indian subcontinent.[28] The plateau is marked by rocky terrain with an average of about 600 m (2,000 ft).[9] The Deccan Traps consist of multiple layers of igneous rocks, which are more than 2 km (1.2 mi) in thickness. These rocks were laid down by basaltic lava flows which emerged from deep inside the Earth's crust following a massive volcanic eruption.[28][29]

The eruption event occurred during the end of the cretaceous period (66 mya) and is the second largest volcanic eruption ever recorded on land. Scientists state that the volcanic event would have released large amounts of ash, dust and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. The release would have blocked sunlight resulting in lower temperatures and caused major climatic changes on Earth. The eruption would have resulted in high levels of sulfur, chlorine and other toxic gases in the atmosphere. Researchers argue that the volcanic event would have contributed to the extinction of various species including some of the dinosaurs.[29]

The volcanic deposits stretch more than 500,000 km2 (190,000 sq mi) encompassing neighbouring central highlands. The deposits consist of three subgroups based on the time and level of deposition.[30] Underlying the lava deposits are granite and sedimentary rocks formed during the precambrian era and the formation of Gondwanaland.[30] The Indo-Gangetic Plain rests on hard crystalline rocks which connect the Himalayan region with the plateau region.[31] Apart from granite, parts of the region consists of metamorphic rocks such as gneiss, and schist.[32]

The Deccan Plateau region is rich in mineral deposits like iron ore, coal, and mica. Precious and semi precious stones have also been mined from the region.[28][33] Large uranium deposits have been discovered in the region in the 21st century.[34][35][36] There are two major soil types, forming distinct sub-regions of the plateau. Most of the region with igneous basaltic rock consists of black soil. These soils have a high clay content, retain moisture and are resistant to erosion, but develop cracks during the dry season. The gneiss peneplain region in the low rainfall areas in the eastern vicinity of the Western Ghats consist of infertile red soil.[32][37]

Geography

Regions of India, showing the Deccan Plateau surrounded by the various mountain ranges.

Historians have used the term Deccan differently across various time periods. Firishta (16th century), R. G. Bhandarkar (1920), and Richard Eaton (2005) demarcate the region based on linguistic lines.[38][37] K. M. Panikkar (1969) defines it as the entire Indian peninsula south of the Vindhyas.[37] Stewart Gordon (1998) notes that Deccan is a "relational term" and historically the border of Deccan has varied from Tapti River to the Godavari River, depending on the southern boundary of the northern empires and is used to denote "the area beyond the southern border of a northern-based kingdom" of India.[39]

Geographers have defined the extent of Deccan region using various physical features and indices such as rainfall, vegetation, or soil type.[38] As per a broader geographical definition, the region consists of the peninsular tableland lying to the south of the Tropic of Cancer, marked by the Vindhya-Satpura ranges in the north.[37] The Deccan is a plateau region extending over an area of 422,000 km2 (163,000 sq mi) and occupies the majority of the Indian peninsula. It is shaped like an inverted triangle with its upper boundary at the Narmada River basin near the Vindhya-Satpura ranges and the lower boundary at the northern fringes of Tamil Nadu in the south.[9][28]

The region is bound by the mountain ranges of the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats on the sides, which separate the region from the Western and Eastern Coastal Plains respectively.[40][41] It covers most of the Indian states of Maharashtra, Telangana, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh excluding the coastal regions, and minor portions of Tamil Nadu and Kerala.[28] The western side of the plateau is elevated gently slopes towards the east.[42][43] It is subdivided into Maharashtra Plateau, Karnataka Plateau, and Telangana Plateau.[28]

Hydrography and climate

Average rainfall Map showing the low rainfall areas in the interior of the plateau.

The Deccan forms one of the major watersheds of India, feeding many perennial rivers.[44] The major river systems originating in the Western Ghats are the Godavari, Kaveri, and Krishna.[32][45] Most rivers flow eastwards towards the Bay of Bengal owing to the steeper gradient moving from east to west, with only smaller streams flowing in the opposite direction.[44] The streams and rivers give rise to numerous waterfalls in the region.[46] The rivers have been dammed for hydroelectric and irrigation purposes, with major reservoirs spread across the region.[47][48]

The region has largely semi-arid climate in the northern parts and tropical climate in most of the other areas. The summer months of April – May are dry and hot with maximum temperatures often rising more than 40 °C (104 °F).[28] During the dry summer months of April – May, heat builds up on the interior of the Deccan Plaeau, which draws air from the sea. The air, which picks up moisture along the way and flows eastward from the Arabian Sea, is blocked by the Western Ghats.[49] The rising air cools and brings about orographic precipitation along the western coast, which signifies the onset of the monsoon season in June.[50]

By the time the air rises above the mountains, it becomes dry, resulting in a rain shadow region with very little rainfall on the leeward side towards the interior of the Deccan plateau. The monsoon winds rounding up the peninsula and moving from the east from the Bay of Bengal pass over the Eastern Ghats and bring some rainfall to the eastern region of the plateau.[51] The region receives most of the rainfall during the months of July to September and the rains feed the rivers that flow into basins and then into the Bay of Bengal.[52][53]

Flora and fauna

There is a wide diversity of plants and animals in the region, resulting from its varied climates and geography. scrub lands are common in the low rainfall regions with dry deciduous forests found in the southern part of the plateau.[54] The woodlands of the region are older than the Himalayas. The central part of the plateau is covered by woodlands formed by trees such as hardwickia, teak, siris, axlewood, boswellia, and acacia trees.[28] The region hosts significant populations of endangered Bengal tigers and Indian elephants[55][56] Other mammals found in the region include gaur, blackbuck, chinkara, four-horned antelope, wild buffalo, and Indian wild dog. [28]

Demographics

Population density map of India, showing sparsely populated interior.

The largest linguistic group in the region is the Dravidian family of languages, of approximately 73 languages.[57] The Telugus and Kannadigas who speak Telugu and Kannada form the major demographic groups in the central region. Tamils and Malayalis form a part of the southern end of the plateau. Marathi people, who speak Marathi, an Indo-Aryan language, form the majority in the north-western part of the plateau.[58] English is also widely spoken in urban areas of the region.[59] Deccani Urdu a regional dialect of Urdu is spoken by the Muslims.[60][61][62] Evidence of prehistoric religion in the region comes from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings depicting dances and rituals, such as the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, at Stone Age sites.[63] Hinduism is the major religion today in the region.[64][65]

The total fertility rate in the region was less than the population replacement level and as a result, the proportion of the population of the region to India's total population has declined in the last four decades.[66][67][68][69] The economies of the states in the region registered a growth higher than the national average over the past three decades. While the states have improved in some of the socio-economic metrics, there is wide disparity within the region.[70][71][72]

Economy

Agriculture is often difficult in low rainfall areas, which require additional irrigation facilities while it is more feasible in the river valleys.[73] Agriculture is still the primary occupation in the region.[74][75] Rice is the staple food and major crop in the region.[76] Others crops cultivated include sugarcane, banana, cotton, turmeric, millets, pulses, and spices.[77][78][79] The urban centres are significant contributors to the Indian and global Information Technology economy.[80][81][82] The presence of these hubs has spurred economic growth and attracted foreign investments and job seekers from other parts of the country.[83] Manufacturing and textiles are other major industries in the region.[84][85][86][87]

Culture

Sari worn by women in the region.

As defined by Ministry of Culture of the Government of India to promote and preserve the cultural heritage, the region falls under the purview of West and South Zone Cultural Centers.[88] The women traditionally wear a sari, a garment that consists of a drape varying from 5 yards (4.6 m) to 9 yards (8.2 m) in length and 2 feet (0.61 m) to 4 feet (1.2 m) in breadth that is typically wrapped around the waist, with one end draped over the shoulder, baring the midriff, as according to Indian philosophy, the navel is considered as the source of life and creativity.[89][90][91] The men wear a dhoti, a 4.5 m (15 ft) long, white rectangular piece of non-stitched cloth often bordered in brightly coloured stripes. It is usually wrapped around the waist and the legs and knotted at the waist.[92] A colourful lungi with typical batik patterns is the most common form of male attire in the countryside. People in urban areas generally wear tailored clothing, and western dress is popular. Western-style school uniforms are worn by both boys and girls in schools, even in rural areas.[93]

The region has a rich cuisine involving both traditional non-vegetarian and vegetarian dishes.[94][95] The traditional way of eating a meal involves eating food served on a banana leaf using the right hand.[96][97] Rice is the staple food in meals of the region.[98] Bhakri made of millets and roti or chapathi made of wheat served with dal are popular in the north and western parts of the region.[99] Idli and dosa served with sambar and chutney for breakfast and rice served with sambar and rasam for lunch are popular in the eastern and southern parts of the region.[100][101][102] Hyderabadi cuisine is popular for its biryani.[103]

Dravidian (left), Vesara (center), and Nagara architecture.

The region is home to various music and dance forms such as Kuchipudi, Lavani, Yakshagana, and Bharatanatyam.[104][105][106] There are three distinct styles of rock architecture, the Dravidian style of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, the Vesara style of Karnataka, Telangana, and the Nagara style of Maharashtra.[107] In Dravidian architecture, the temples considered of large gate-pyramids or Gopurams in quadrangular enclosures that surround the temple with large pillared halls.[108][109][110] Vimanam are similar structures built over the garbhagriha or inner sanctum of the temple but are usually smaller than the gopurams in the Dravidian architecture.[111][112] In the Nagara style, the temples had one or more shikharas, which are towers similar to the vimanas.[113] The Vesara style is a hybrid of both these architectural styles.[114][115]

Transport

Highway distribution with population density.

There is an extensive road network composed of National Highways, State Highways and other roads in the region. The Golden Quadrilateral connecting the major cities in the country traverses across the region.[116] Public bus services are mostly provided by state-run transport corporations.[117][118][119][120]

The Madras Railway was established in 1845 and the Great Indian Peninsular Railway was incorporated in 1849.[121] The construction on the first main line in the South between Royapuram in Madras and Arcot started in 1853, which became operational on 1 July 1856.[122] In 1879, the Nizam's Guaranteed State Railway was established which built railway lines across the then Hyderabad State and the Mysore State Railway was established to build an extension of Madras Railway in Mysore State.[123] In 1880, the Great Indian Peninsula Railway built a railway network radiating from Madras.[124][125] The Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway was founded on 1 January 1908 by merging the Madras Railway and the Southern Mahratta Railway.[126][127] In 1950, there were about 42 different railway companies across the countrym which were amalgamated in steps to form a single entity named as Indian Railways.[128][129] On 14 April 1951, the Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway, the South Indian Railway, and the Mysore State Railway were merged to form the Southern Railway, the first zone of Indian Railways.[130] The Western was established on 5 November 1951, the South Central zone on 2 October 1966, and the South Western zone on 1 April 2003.[131] Most of the region is covered by these four zones, with small portions of the coasts covered by East Coast Railway and Konkan Railway.[132] Metro and suburban systems are operational in major cities.[133][134]

Air transport in the region started in the late 1910s with commercial services beginning in the 1930s.[135][136][137] The region has multiple international and domestic airports.[138][139] Chennai International Airport serves as the Southern Regional Headquarters of the Airports Authority of India, the Southern Region comprising the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, and Mumbai International Airport serves the state of Maharashtra.[140] The southern region comes under the purview of the Southern Air Command of the Indian Air Force and the north western region comes under the South Western Air Command.[141]

See also

References

  1. ^ Yule, Henry; Burnell, A. C. (13 June 2013). Hobson-Jobson: The Definitive Glossary of British India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-191-64583-9.
  2. ^ Turner, R. L. (30 October 1966). A comparative dictionary of Indo-Aryan languages. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 5 November 2023. Retrieved 30 October 2023.
  3. ^ "Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary". Monier-Williams. p. 498. Archived from the original on 25 May 2006. Retrieved 1 May 2006.
  4. ^ Agarwal, D.P (2006). Urban Origins in India (PDF). Uppsala University. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 May 2023. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
  5. ^ Schoff, Wilfred (1912). The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel And Trade In The Indian Ocean By A Merchant Of The First Century. South Asia Books. pp. 152–153. ISBN 978-8-1215-0699-1.
  6. ^ J. Innes, Miller (1998) [1969]. The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire: 29 B.C. to A.D. 641. Oxford University Press. p. 11,19. ISBN 978-0-1981-4264-5.
  7. ^ Elisseeff, Vadime (2001). The Silk Roads: Highways of Culture and Commerce. Berghahn Books. pp. 93–99. ISBN 978-9-2310-3652-1.
  8. ^ a b Sastri, Nilakanta (1976). A History of South India from Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar. Oxford University Press. pp. 7, 69, 179, 199, 214, 239. ISBN 978-0-1956-0686-7.
  9. ^ a b c d e "Deccan". Britannica. Archived from the original on 29 June 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  10. ^ George C. Kohn (2006). Dictionary of Wars. Infobase Publishing. p. 597. ISBN 978-1-438-12916-7.
  11. ^ Jenkins, Everett (2015). The Muslim Diaspora (Volume 1, 570–1500): A Comprehensive Chronology of the Spread of Islam in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas, Volume 1. McFarland. p. 257. ISBN 978-1-476-60888-4.
  12. ^ Wink, André (2020). The Making of the Indo-Islamic World C.700–1800 CE. Cambridge University Press. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-108-41774-7.
  13. ^ Mitchell, George; Zebrowski, Mark (1999). Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates (The New Cambridge History of India Vol. I:7). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 10. ISBN 0-521-56321-6.
  14. ^ Tucker, Spencer C. (2010). A global chronology of conflict. ABC-Clio. p. 756. ISBN 978-1-851-09667-1. Archived from the original on 3 June 2024. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
  15. ^ Pearson, M.N. (February 1976). "Shivaji and the Decline of the Mughal Empire". The Journal of Asian Studies. 35 (2): 221–235. doi:10.2307/2053980. JSTOR 2053980. S2CID 162482005.
  16. ^ Capper, J. (1918). Delhi, the Capital of India. Asian Educational Services. p. 28. ISBN 978-8-120-61282-2. Retrieved 6 January 2017.
  17. ^ Sen, S.N. (2010). An Advanced History of Modern India. Macmillan Publishers. p. 1941. ISBN 978-0-230-32885-3. Retrieved 6 January 2017.
  18. ^ Hibbert, Christopher (1 March 2000). Great Mutiny: India 1857. Penguin Publishing. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-140-04752-3.
  19. ^ "India". World Digital Library. Archived from the original on 25 August 2014. Retrieved 24 January 2013.
  20. ^ Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV. University of Chicago. 1909. p. 46.
  21. ^ Indian National Evolution: A Brief Survey of the Origin and Progress of the Indian National Congress and the Growth of Indian Nationalism. Cornell University Press. 22 September 2009. p. 59. ISBN 978-1-1124-5184-3.
  22. ^ "Article 1". Constitution of India. Government of India. Archived from the original on 2 April 2012. Retrieved 31 December 2015.
  23. ^ Thapar, Romesh (1978). Change and Conflict in India. Macmillan Publishers. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-8364-0222-3.
  24. ^ States Reorganisation Act, 1956 (PDF) (Report). High Court of Tripura. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 September 2023. Retrieved 16 September 2023.
  25. ^ Reorganisation of states (PDF) (Report). Economic Weekly. 15 October 1955. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 February 2016. Retrieved 31 December 2015.
  26. ^ The Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 (PDF). Government of India (Report). Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 January 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
  27. ^ "Telangana bill passed by upper house". The Times of India. 20 February 2014. Archived from the original on 20 February 2014. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
  28. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Deccan Plateau". World Atlas. 28 June 2021. Archived from the original on 23 April 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  29. ^ a b "Deccan Traps". American Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  30. ^ a b "Petrophysical properties of the entire Deccan basalt stratigraphy". Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  31. ^ "Indo Gangetic Plain" (PDF). University Grants Commission. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  32. ^ a b c "The Deccan". Britannica. Archived from the original on 11 October 2021. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  33. ^ Ottens, Berthold (1 January 2003). "Minerals of the Deccan Traps, India". HighBeam Research. Archived from the original on 11 September 2016. Retrieved 8 August 2016.
  34. ^ Subramanian, T. S. (20 March 2011). "Massive uranium deposits found in Andhra Pradesh". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 8 August 2016.
  35. ^ Thakur, Monami (19 July 2011). "Massive uranium deposits found in Andhra Pradesh". International Business Times. Archived from the original on 18 October 2017. Retrieved 8 August 2016.
  36. ^ Bedi, Rahul (19 July 2011). "Largest uranium reserves found in India". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022.
  37. ^ a b c d Alam, Shah Manzoor (2011). "The Historic Deccan - A Geographical Appraisal". In Kalpana Markandey; Geeta Reddy Anant (eds.). Urban Growth Theories and Settlement Systems of India. Concept. pp. 311–312. ISBN 978-8-180-69739-5.
  38. ^ a b Eaton, Richard M. (2005). A Social History of the Deccan, 1300–1761. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-521-25484-7.
  39. ^ Gordon, Stewart (1993). The Marathas 1600–1818. The New Cambridge History of India. Cambridge University Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-521-26883-7. Archived from the original on 4 July 2023. Retrieved 29 October 2019.
  40. ^ "Physiography of Water". Press Information Bureau (Press release). 9 September 2008. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  41. ^ Population of India. Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, United Nations. 1982. p. 2.
  42. ^ Barron, E.J.; Harrison, C.G.A.; Sloan, J.L. II; Hay, W.W. (1981). "Paleogeography, 180 million years ago to the present". Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae. 74 (2): 443–470.
  43. ^ "Formation of Western Ghats". Indian Institute of Science. Archived from the original on 21 May 2024. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  44. ^ a b Shanavas P H; Sumesh A K; Haris P M (2016). Western Ghats - From Ecology To Economics. Educreation Publishing. pp. 27–29. ISBN 978-9-3852-4758-3.
  45. ^ Dhruv Sen Singh (2017). The Indian Rivers: Scientific and Socio-economic Aspects. Springer Nature. p. 309. ISBN 978-9-8110-2984-4.
  46. ^ Patricia Corrigan (2019). Waterfalls. Infobase Publishing. p. 131. ISBN 978-1-4381-8252-0.
  47. ^ "Indian Dams by River and State". Rain water harvesting. Archived from the original on 19 March 2007. Retrieved 19 March 2007.
  48. ^ Samani, R.L.; Ayhad, A.P. (2002). "Siltation of Reservoirs-Koyna Hydroelectric Project-A Case Study". In S. P. Kaushish; B. S. K. Naidu (eds.). Silting Problems in Hydropower Plants. Bangkok: Central Board of Irrigation and Power. ISBN 978-90-5809-238-0.
  49. ^ "Indian monsoon". Britannica. Archived from the original on 1 August 2016. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  50. ^ "Orographic precipitation". Britannica. Archived from the original on 5 January 2020. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  51. ^ "Climate of Western Ghats". Indian Institute of Science. Archived from the original on 21 May 2024. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  52. ^ "The Deccan Peninsula". Sanctuary Asia. Archived from the original on 17 October 2006. Retrieved 5 January 2007.
  53. ^ "Eastern Deccan Plateau Moist Forests". World Wildlife Fund. Archived from the original on 15 April 2013. Retrieved 5 January 2007.
  54. ^ "Indo-Malayan Terrestrial Ecoregions". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 21 March 2001. Retrieved 15 April 2006.
  55. ^ "India's tiger population rises". Deccan Chronicle. 15 January 2015. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
  56. ^ Elephant Census 2005 (PDF) (Report). Government of India. 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 March 2012. Retrieved 23 February 2003.
  57. ^ Caldwell, Robert (1998). A comparative grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian family of languages (3rd ed.). Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-8-1206-0117-8.
  58. ^ "Statement 1 : Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues – 2011" (PDF). Government of India. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 February 2022. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
  59. ^ Baldridge, Jason. "Linguistic and Social Characteristics of Indian English". University of Edinburgh. Archived from the original on 2 July 2015. Retrieved 22 July 2015.
  60. ^ Religious statistics, Census 2011 (Report). Government of India. Archived from the original on 17 August 2015. Retrieved 22 July 2015.
  61. ^ Fatihi, A.R. "Urdu in Andhra Pradesh". Language in India. Archived from the original on 13 July 2015. Retrieved 22 July 2015.
  62. ^ Upadhyaya, Padmanabha (1973). Coastal Karnataka: Studies in Folkloristic and Linguistic Traditions of Dakshina Kannada Region of the Western Coast of India. Govind Pai Samshodhana Kendra. ISBN 978-8-1866-6806-1.
  63. ^ "Ancient Indians made 'rock music'". BBC News. 19 March 2004. Archived from the original on 26 April 2015. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
  64. ^ Webster, Merriam (1999). Encyclopedia of World Religions. Merriam-Webster. p. 484. ISBN 978-0-877-79044-0.
  65. ^ Religion, Census of India (Report). Government of India. Archived from the original on 15 December 2023. Retrieved 1 November 2023.
  66. ^ Espenshade, TJ; Guzman, JC; Westoff, CF (2003). "The surprising global variation in replacement fertility". Population Research and Policy Review. 22 (5/6): 580. doi:10.1023/B:POPU.0000020882.29684.8e. S2CID 10798893.
  67. ^ Maternal & Child Mortality and Total Fertility Rates (PDF) (Report). Office of Registrar General. 7 July 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 July 2013. Retrieved 3 December 2013.
  68. ^ Ishtiaq, M. (1999). Language Shifts Among the Scheduled Tribes in India: A Geographical Study. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 26–27. ISBN 978-8-1208-1617-6. Retrieved 7 September 2012.
  69. ^ Comparative Speaker's Strength of Scheduled Languages – 1971, 1981, 1991 and 2001 (Report). Census of India. 1991. Archived from the original on 11 April 2009.
  70. ^ Antony, G.M.; Laxmaiah, A. (20 April 2015). "Human development, poverty, health & nutrition situation in India" (PDF). The Indian Journal of Medical Research. 128 (2). Council of Social Development, Southern Regional Centre & Division of Community Studies National Institute of Nutrition (ICMR): 198–205. PMID 19001685. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 August 2021. Retrieved 22 July 2015.
  71. ^ "Also A Head For Numbers". Outlook. 16 July 2007. Archived from the original on 2 May 2013. Retrieved 22 July 2015.
  72. ^ Guha, Ramachandra (22 July 2015). "The Better Half". Outlook. Archived from the original on 20 March 2016. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
  73. ^ "Peninsular India". Photius. September 1995. Archived from the original on 28 October 2016. Retrieved 8 August 2016.
  74. ^ Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2021 (PDF) (Report). Government of India. pp. 32–33. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
  75. ^ Distribution of workers by category of workers, Census 2011 (Report). Government of India. Archived from the original on 31 March 2016. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
  76. ^ "Food Staple". National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on 31 August 2023. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
  77. ^ "Turmeric at an all-time high price". The Economic Times. 29 December 2009. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
  78. ^ Sugracane in India (PDF) (Report). Government of India. p. 64. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 August 2023. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
  79. ^ State wise major spice production (PDF) (Report). Government of India. pp. 1–4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 August 2023. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
  80. ^ Canton, Naomi (6 December 2012). "How the 'Silicon Valley of India' is bridging the digital divide". CNN. Archived from the original on 18 December 2012. Retrieved 6 December 2012.
  81. ^ Rai, Saritha (20 March 2006). "Is the Next Silicon Valley Taking Root in Bangalore?". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 13 October 2011. Retrieved 20 March 2006.
  82. ^ Vaidyanathan, Rajini (5 November 2012). "Can the 'American Dream' be reversed in India?". BBC World News. Archived from the original on 5 November 2012. Retrieved 5 November 2012.
  83. ^ "Maharashtra tops FDI equity inflows". Business Standard. 1 December 2012. Archived from the original on 23 July 2015. Retrieved 22 July 2015.
  84. ^ Subramanyam Javvadi. "Eight auto majors are looking at Andhra Pradesh as their base for operations". Autocar. Archived from the original on 28 September 2020. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
  85. ^ "India's Gems and Jewellery Market is Glittering". Resource Investor. Archived from the original on 26 September 2011. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
  86. ^ "Lok Sabha Elections 2014: Erode has potential to become a textile heaven says Narendra Modi". DNA India. 17 April 2014. Archived from the original on 19 November 2015. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
  87. ^ "State wise number of Textile Mills". Press Information Bureau, Government of India. 7 August 2014. Archived from the original on 1 September 2023. Retrieved 23 January 2023.
  88. ^ "Zonal Cultural Centers". Ministry of Culture. Retrieved 1 April 2024.
  89. ^ Boulanger, Chantal (1997). Saris: An Illustrated Guide to the Indian Art of Draping. New York: Shakti Press International. ISBN 0-9661496-1-0.
  90. ^ Lynton, Linda (1995). The Sari. Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-810-94461-9.
  91. ^ C. Monahan, Susanne; Andrew Mirola, William; O. Emerson, Michael (2001). Sociology of Religion. Prentice Hall. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-1302-5380-4.
  92. ^ "About Dhoti". Britannica. Archived from the original on 13 March 2016. Retrieved 12 January 2016.
  93. ^ "Clothing in India". Britannica. Archived from the original on 17 March 2016. Retrieved 12 January 2016.
  94. ^ Czarra, Fred (2009). Spices: A Global History. Reaktion Books. p. 128. ISBN 978-1-8618-9426-7.
  95. ^ Dalby, Andrew (2002). Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-5202-3674-5.
  96. ^ Molina, A.B.; Roa, V.N.; Van den Bergh, I.; Maghuyop, M.A. (2000). Advancing banana and plantain R & D in Asia and the Pacific. Biodiversity International. p. 84. ISBN 978-9-719-17513-1.
  97. ^ Kalman, Bobbie (2009). India: The Culture. Crabtree Publishing Company. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-7787-9287-1.
  98. ^ "Food Balance Sheets and Crops Primary Equivalent". FAO. Archived from the original on 3 October 2012. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
  99. ^ Singh, K.S. (2004). Maharashtra (first ed.). Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. p. XLIX. ISBN 978-8-17991-100-6. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
  100. ^ Achaya, K.T. (1 November 2003). The Story of Our Food. Universities Press. p. 80. ISBN 978-8-1737-1293-7.
  101. ^ Balasubramanian, D. (21 October 2014). "Changes in the Indian menu over the ages". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 6 December 2014. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
  102. ^ The Bloomsbury Handbook of Indian Cuisine. Bloomsbury Publishing. 2023. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-350-12864-4.
  103. ^ "Varieties from Chettinad cuisine". The Hindu. 26 May 2003. Archived from the original on 28 June 2003. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
  104. ^ "The music of we primates:Nada Brahmam". The Hindu. 13 January 2013. Archived from the original on 31 March 2005. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
  105. ^ Massey, Reginald (2004). India's Dances Their History, Technique, and Repertoire. New Delhi: Abhinav. ISBN 978-8-1701-7434-9.
  106. ^ Samson, Leela (1987). Rhythm in Joy: Classical Indian Dance Traditions. New Delhi: Lustre Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-9-9919-4155-4.
  107. ^ Harman, William P. (9 October 1992). The sacred marriage of a Hindu goddess. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 6. ISBN 978-8-1208-0810-2.
  108. ^ Fergusson, James (1997) [1910]. History of Indian and Eastern Architecture (3rd ed.). Low Price Publications. p. 309.
  109. ^ Ching, Francis D.K.; et al. (2007). A Global History of Architecture. New York: John Wiley and Sons. p. 762. ISBN 978-0-4712-6892-5.
  110. ^ Ching, Francis D.K. (1995). A Visual Dictionary of Architecture. New York: John Wiley and Sons. p. 253. ISBN 978-0-4712-8451-2.
  111. ^ S.R. Balasubrahmanyam (1975), Middle Chola Temples, Thomson Press, pp. 16–29, ISBN 978-9-0602-3607-9
  112. ^ Neela, N.; Ambrosia, G. (April 2016). "Vimana architecture under the Cholas" (PDF). Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science & Humanities. 3 (4): 57. ISSN 2321-788X. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 July 2019. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
  113. ^ "Shikhara". Britannica. Archived from the original on 27 November 2015. Retrieved 4 August 2015.
  114. ^ Sinha, A.J. (2000). Imagining Architects: Creativity in the Religious Monuments of India. University of Delaware Press. pp. 77–83. ISBN 978-0-8741-3684-5.
  115. ^ John M. Fritz; George Michell (2001). New Light on Hampi, Recent research in Vijayanagara. MARG. p. 9. ISBN 978-8-1850-2653-4.
  116. ^ Year at a glance (PDF) (Report). Government of India. p. 3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 November 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
  117. ^ "Profile, APSRTC" (PDF). Government of Andhra Pradesh. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 March 2023. Retrieved 20 March 2023.
  118. ^ About TNSTC (PDF) (Report). Government of Tamil Nadu. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 March 2023. Retrieved 20 March 2023.
  119. ^ "History of KSRTC". Government of Karnataka. Archived from the original on 5 January 2023. Retrieved 20 March 2023.
  120. ^ Krishnamoorthy, Suresh (16 May 2014). "It will be TGSRTC from June 2". The Hindu. Hyderabad. Archived from the original on 6 June 2014. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
  121. ^ Understanding Indian Railway Heritage (PDF) (Report). Indian Railways. p. 6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  122. ^ "On Forgotten Road". The Times of India. 31 March 2013. Archived from the original on 12 August 2023. Retrieved 9 August 2023.
  123. ^ Jaganath, Santosh. The History of Nizam's Railways System. Lulu.com. p. 98. ISBN 978-1-312-49647-7. Archived from the original on 31 March 2024. Retrieved 26 October 2020.
  124. ^ Rungta, Shyam (1970). The Rise of Business Corporations in India, 1851–1900. Cambridge U.P. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-5210-7354-7.
  125. ^ Origin and development of Southern Railway (PDF) (Report). Indian Railways. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 14 February 2015.
  126. ^ Raychaudhuri, Tapan; Habib, Irfan (1982). The Cambridge Economic History of India, Vol 2. Orient Blackswan. p. 755. ISBN 978-8-1250-2731-7.
  127. ^ "Third oldest railway station in country set to turn 156". Indian Railways. Archived from the original on 8 July 2012. Retrieved 13 February 2013.
  128. ^ Indian Railways (PDF) (Report). Parliament of India. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 April 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  129. ^ Modernisation booklet (PDF) (Report). Indian Railways. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 March 2024. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  130. ^ "Evolution of Indian Railways-Historical Background". Ministry of Railways. Archived from the original on 19 April 2010. Retrieved 13 February 2013.
  131. ^ Overview of Indian Railways (PDF) (Report). National Academy of Indian Railways. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 January 2024. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
  132. ^ Zones and divisions of Indian Railways (PDF) (Report). Indian Railways. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  133. ^ "Metro rail transport". Government of India. Archived from the original on 1 September 2023. Retrieved 31 August 2023.
  134. ^ Sood, Jyotika (26 July 2017). "How metro rail networks are spreading across India". Live mint. Archived from the original on 2 December 2020. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  135. ^ "100 years of Civil Aviation" (Press release). Government of India. 25 January 2011. Archived from the original on 26 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  136. ^ Higham, Robin (1961). Britain's Imperial Air Routes, 1918 to 1939. Shoe String Press. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-2080-0171-9.
  137. ^ "De Havilland Gazette". De Havilland Aircraft Company: 103. 1953.
  138. ^ List of Indian Airports (PDF) (Report). Airports Authority of India. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 February 2021. Retrieved 11 July 2022.
  139. ^ Traffic Statistics-July 2024 (PDF) (Report). Airports Authority of India. Retrieved 1 August 2024.
  140. ^ "Regional Headquarters of AAI". Airports Authority of India. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
  141. ^ "Indian Air Force Commands". Indian Air Force. Archived from the original on 2 October 2019. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deccan_Plateau&oldid=1263141939"