Eurodollar
Eurodollars are U.S. dollars held in time deposit accounts in banks outside the United States. The term was originally applied to U.S. dollar accounts held in banks situated in Europe, but it expanded over the years to cover US dollar accounts held anywhere outside the U.S. Thus, a U.S. dollar-denominated deposit in Tokyo or Beijing would likewise be deemed a Eurodollar deposit (sometimes an Asiadollar). More generally, the euro- prefix can be used to indicate any currency held in a country where it is not the official currency, broadly termed "eurocurrency", for example, Euroyen or even Euroeuro.
Eurodollars have different regulatory requirements than dollars held in U.S. banks. Eurodollars can be riskier than assets held in U.S. banks, which include at least partial deposit insurance, and as a result, demand a higher interest rate.[1]
The use of Eurodollars has been on a consistent decline.[2]
There is no connection with the euro currency of the European Union.
History
[edit]After World War II, the quantity of physical U.S. dollar banknotes outside the United States increased significantly, as a result of both the dollar funding of the Marshall Plan and from dollar proceeds of European exports to the U.S., which had become the largest consumer market.
As a result, large amounts of U.S. dollar banknotes were in the custody of foreign banks outside the United States. Some foreign countries, including the Soviet Union, also had deposits in U.S. dollars in American banks, evidenced by certificates of deposit. Various narrations are given of the creation of the first eurodollar account, but most trace back to Communist governments keeping dollar deposits abroad.
In one version, the first eurodollar account was created in France in favour of Communist China, which in 1949 managed to move almost all of its U.S. dollar banknotes to the Soviet-owned Banque Commerciale pour l'Europe du Nord in Paris before the United States froze its remaining U.S. situated assets during the Korean War.[3]
In another version, the first eurodollar account was created by an English bank in favour of the Soviet Union during the Cold War, following the invasion of Hungary in 1956, as the Soviet Union feared that its deposits in North American banks would be frozen as a sanction. It therefore decided to move some of its U.S. dollars held directly in North American banks to the Moscow Narodny Bank, an English limited liability company registered in London in 1919, whose shares were owned by the Soviet Union. The English bank would then re-deposit the dollars into U.S. banks. Thus although in reality the dollars never left North America, there would be no chance of the U.S. confiscating that money, because now it belonged legally to the British bank and not directly to the Soviets, the beneficial owners. Accordingly, on 28 February 1957, the sum of $800,000 was duly transferred, creating the first eurodollars. Initially dubbed "Eurobank dollars" after the bank's telex address, they eventually became known as "eurodollars"[4] as such deposits were at first held mostly by European banks and financial institutions.[4] City of London banks, such as Midland Bank, now part of HSBC, and their offshore holding companies[5] also played a major role in holding the deposits.
In the mid-1950s, Eurodollar trading and its development into a dominant world currency began when the Soviet Union wanted better interest rates on their Eurodollars and convinced an Italian banking cartel to give them more interest than could have been earned if the dollars were deposited in the U.S. The Italian bankers then had to find customers ready to borrow the Soviet dollars and pay above the U.S. legal interest-rate caps for their use, and were able to do so; thus, Eurodollars began to be used increasingly in global finance.[3]
By the end of 1970, 385 billion eurodollars were held in offshore bank accounts.[6] These deposits were lent on as U.S. dollar loans to businesses in other countries where interest rates on loans were perhaps much higher in the local currency, and where the businesses were exporting to the U.S. and receiving payment in dollars, thereby avoiding foreign exchange risk on their funding arrangements.
Several factors led eurodollars to overtake certificates of deposit (CDs) issued by U.S. banks as the primary private short-term money market instruments by the 1980s, including:[clarification needed]
- The successive balance of payments deficits of the United States, causing a net outflow of dollars;[7]
- Regulation Q, the U.S. Federal Reserve's ceiling on interest payable[8] on domestic deposits during the high inflation of the 1970s[9]
- Eurodollar deposits were a cheaper source of funds because they were free of reserve requirements and deposit insurance assessments[9]
Market size
[edit]In 1997, nearly 90% of all international loans were made this way.[10]
In December 1985, the Eurodollar market was estimated by J.P. Morgan & Co. Guaranty bank to have a net size of 1.668 trillion.[11]
In 2016, the Eurodollar market size was estimated at around 13.833 trillion.[12]
Eurodollar futures contracts
[edit]The Eurodollar futures contract was launched in 1981. It was the first cash-settled futures contract.[13] It traded on the Chicago Mercantile Exchange.[14] Eurodollar futures were an instrument used to wager on Federal Reserve policy or to hedge the direction of short-term interest rates. In April 2023, after the Libor scandal, they were eliminated and transitioned to SOFR-based contracts.[15][16]
Sweeps
[edit] | This section needs to be updated. (October 2013) |
In United States banking, Eurodollars are used for what are known as "sweeps". Until 21 July 2011, banks were not allowed to pay interest on corporate transactional accounts. To accommodate larger businesses, banks may automatically transfer, or sweep, funds from a corporation's checking account into an overnight investment option to effectively earn interest on those funds. Banks usually allow these funds to be swept either into money market funds, or alternately they may be used for bank funding by transferring to an offshore branch of a bank. Today, commercial banks continue to offer many forms of sweep services which tend to give a higher rate of return whilst smaller entities may use a sweep account simply out of convenience.
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ "THE NATURE OF THE EURODOLLAR" (PDF). Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond. 1998.
- ^ "Who Is Borrowing and Lending in the Eurodollar and Selected Deposit Markets?". Federal Reserve Bank of New York. 13 May 2024.
- ^ a b Garson, Barbara (2001). Money Makes the World Go Around. Penguin Books. p. 29. ISBN 0-670-86660-1.
- ^ a b "Adam Smith" (George J.W. George) (1982). Paper Money. London: Macdonald & Co. p. 122. ISBN 0-356-08573-2.
- ^ Schenk, Catherine R. (April 1998). "The Origins of the Eurodollar Market in London: 1955–1963" (PDF). Explorations in Economic History. 35 (2): 221–238. doi:10.1006/exeh.1998.0693.
- ^ William Brittain-Catlin: Offshore – The Dark Side of the Global Economy; Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005, p.8-9
- ^ Schenk, p.223 "the supply of Eurodollar facilities is interpreted as a response to a demand for a new way to accommodate US$ surpluses"
- ^ Regulation Q, Schenk, p.222
- ^ a b Galen Burghardt (2003). The Eurodollar Futures and Options Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-141855-5.
- ^ Shaxson, Nicholas (2011). Treasure Islands. London: The Bodley Head. ISBN 978-1-84792-110-9.
- ^ Harold G. Vatter and John F. Walker (editors): History of the U.S. Economy since World War II; Sharpe, 1996.
- ^ Nedbank (September 2016). "The rise and fall of the eurodollar system" (PDF).
- ^ Maidenberg, H.J. (14 December 1981). "Commodities; New Eurodollar Market". The New York Times.
- ^ "Market Begins Trading In Eurodollar Futures". The New York Times. Associated Press. 10 December 1981.
- ^ Chen, Vivien Lou (14 April 2023). "Goodbye, Eurodollar futures. Here's why the once- dominant derivatives contract is going away". MarketWatch.
- ^ Stanton, Elizabeth (14 April 2023). "The Once-Mighty Eurodollar Futures Contract Fades Away". Bloomberg News.